Golf courses (GCs) are often established in highly fragmented and at least partly degraded landscapes, resulting in positive effects on biodiversity and ecosystem functions. However, there are few studies on the ecological effects within and beyond GCs. The project carries out landscape ecological analysis of 40 courses along urbanization gradients in Munich (Germany), Manchester (UK), Stockholm (Sweden), Copenhagen (Denmark) and Oslo (Norway). In 2024, we completed habitat mapping using GIS, breeding bird surveys, and vegetation surveys. For birds, we used a standardised approach to estimate the occurrence of pairs of breeding birds through early morning observations in a number of fixed locations per course. This gives information on species composition and density. For the vegetation survey, we used standardised transect walks partitioned by land use type (rough, lawn, forest etc.), with the number of species being recorded to estimate vascular plant species richness. The field botanists had a joint field-day in early May 2024 in Munich to calibrate survey methods.
Landscape analyses are based on high resolution satellite imagery for all five target cities, covering the selected golf courses plus a 1-km buffer and the surrounding areas. Imagery was acquired from multiple satellites, all at a 2-m spatial resolution and acquiring imagery in four spectral bands (green, blue, red and near infra-red). This information is used to estimate landscape indicators for biodiversity, such as the size and shape of landscape elements, edge effects, landscape diversity, and landscape heterogeneity based on land cover types. A case study on the use of drone data to characterise golf courses at a higher level of spatial detail is in progress at the Dunscar GC, UK.
Landscape analyses and analyses of bird and vegetation data will be completed in the first half of 2025 and prepared for publication and dissemination. To better understand motivations and bottlenecks in addressing biodiversity in course design and management, we hosted a workshop in early December 2024 with part of the reference group and professional golf course designers. This is useful to the consortium as it allows for target dissemination.
In sum, the project will provide knowledge of how GCs can be designed and managed to improve their contributions to biodiversity and ecological functions on a landscape scale, while also giving the context dependence of each GC. The main findings of the project will be disseminated to the golf industry as a combination of guidelines, workshops and webinars.
