Golf courses (GC) are often established in highly fragmented and at least partly degraded landscapes, resulting in positive effects on biodiversity and ecosystem functions. However, there are few studies on the ecological effects within and beyond GC.
The project carried out landscape ecological analysis of 40 courses along urbanization gradients in Munich (Germany), Manchester (UK), Stockholm (Sweden), Copenhagen (Denmark) and Oslo (Norway), including a 1 km buffer around each course with habitat mapping using GIS on high resolution satellite imagery, breeding bird surveys, and vegetation surveys.
We found that the species richness of birds and vegetation on golf courses was determined by a combination of landscape characteristics and course configuration. Habitat richness on courses was important for the species pool, and we found a higher richness of birds and plants in more urban landscapes. Aside from the urbanisation gradient, the habitat composition of the surrounding landscape had marginal effects on the species richness on the course.
Regional differences were evident and the total area of the course was important for the species pool, but the extent of rough and deciduous woodlands was also an important contributor to the species pool across courses. Interestingly, the overlap in species composition between habitats on courses was smaller than expected, and most habitats contributed additional species. For design and management, we recommend focussing on maintaining habitat richness on both small and large courses. Hence, estimates of habitat richness and the Simpson diversity index are good candidate indicators for assessment and the monitoring of potential biodiversity support on golf courses. Also, the extent of rough and semi-rough, and deciduous woodland can be used more directly as indicators of habitats supporting biodiversity.
