In this study, six golf courses, two courses near three cities in Sweden (Uppsala, Malmö and Gothenburg) are being investigated. Six holes per course have been sampled for both environmental and ecological parameters. After contacts and discussions with managers responsible for the six golf courses in three regions, a total number of 180 interviews was conducted (30 interviews per golf course).
Ecological studies The basis of the ecological studies was the difference in ecological effect between the three types of management regimes studied (fairway, rough and high rough). Plant species richness, number of flowers and number of visiting pollinators all increased with decreasing management intensity, from fairway to high rough. This shows that pollinators are attracted to the flower-rich parts of the golf course and that by increasing the flower-rich areas on the course. This can be achieved either by constructing such areas or by ensuring that the management is such that floral wealth increases. Increased abundance of flowers will benefit several organism groups. The number of plant species found in plots in the six golf courses varied from 40 in Burlöv GK to 71 in Lunds akademiska GK. Carbon sequestration Biomass production was lowest in the greens followed by the fairways and the roughs. The difference between roughs and fairways was thereby significant. Soil organic C concentration in greens (0.93%) was significantly lower than in fairways (4.0±1.3%) and roughs (4.5±1.2%). The difference between roughs and fairways was in the same direction as observed for above-ground production. On average, roughs had about 10 tons C ha-1 more soil C than fairways. Alternative cutting regimes on greens and fairways are probably not feasible, but the management of the rough may be optimised in order to maximise carbon sequestration. Golf’s importance from a social, ecological and cultural perspective The interviews indicate that the golf course and time spent on the golf course include so much more than the sport itself. For many players, time on the golf course also involves experience of nature and beautiful surroundings in a social context, a way to stay in shape (fitness) and a way to relax (recreation).
Golf courses have great potential to support multiple values, for biodiversity and carbon sequestration and social wellbeing of people. We are presently completing the report from the social studies, which include analysis of trade-offs and synergies between the different ecosystem services.
