The goal of this research project was to investigate the role of golf courses in providing habitat for macroinvertebrates and amphibians in greater Stockholm, Sweden. The presence of macroinvertebrates and amphibians in golf ponds of greater Stockholm, Sweden, was assessed in order to examine the potential biodiversity-support provided by golf courses in an urban setting. As a comparison, this fauna was also surveyed in reference ponds, including ponds protected by legislation. 24 ponds were selected for this analysis: 12 golf ponds (GPs) and 12 reference ponds (RPs). A random sample of ponds was surveyed at the six most centrally located 18-hole golf courses in Stockholm. Fauna was sampled during the spring and early summer of 2005 (May 4 to June 7). We sought to determine whether or not the surveyed golf ponds and reference ponds differed regarding faunal diversity and pond status, as reflected in trophic conditions. Differences among macroinvertebrates, amphibians, and odonata were tested statistically using a one-way analysis of similarities (ANOSIM) randomization test The results showed that the occurrence of species that are sensitive to eutrophication was significantly higher in golf course ponds compared to the surveyed reference ponds. Both internationally red-listed and nationally protected amphibians and macroinvertebrates were encountered on golf courses. Moreover, we found that more than a quarter of all freshwater ponds in the region of greater Stockholm are found on golf courses. These habitats have been entirely overlooked in previous faunal assessments. While there has been a global decline of wetlands and freshwater organisms, this study shows that golf courses not only positively contribute to the creation of wetlands, but that they also provide suitable habitats for many species, including threatened species. An important implication of this study is that golf courses fulfil important biodiversity/ conservation functions, which can be greatly promoted through active management and design of courses and specific habitats on golf courses.
